Writing and Research Skills
1
WEEK 6
RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Research Planning
2
Terms used in research
Concepts, constructs, definitions, variables,
propositions/ hypotheses, theory, reasoning, models
Scientific method
Sound reasoning for useful answers
Deduction
Induction
Combining induction and deduction
Keywords
References
Learning Objectives
3
Understand . . .
The
terminology used by professional
researchers employing scientific thinking
What you need to formulate a solid research
hypothesis
The need for sound reasoning to enhance
research results
Terms used in Research Language of
Research
4
Terms used in research:
Concepts
Constructs
Operational definitions
Variables
Propositions/hypotheses
Theory
Reasoning
Models
Terms used in Research Concepts
5
A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics
associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events,
objects, conditions, or situations.
To achieve success of research:
Clear conceptualization of concepts
Shared understanding of concepts among researchers
If concepts are not clearly conceptualized
measured, we will receive confusing answers.
and
Terms used in Research Construct
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A construct is an abstract
phenomena for a given research
project.
Terms used in Research Operational Definition
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An operational definition defines a variable in
terms of specific measurement and testing
criteria.
How can we define the variable “class
level of students”?
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
< 30 credit hours
30-50 credit hours
60-89 credit hours
> 90 credit hours
Terms used in Research Variables
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Variable is a property being studied.
It is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic,
trait, or attribute that can be measured and to
which we assign categorical values.
Terms used in Research Variables Types of Variables
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Dichotomous: male/female, employed/
unemployed
Discrete: ethnic background, educational
level, religious affiliation
Continuous: income, temperature, age
Terms used in Research Variables Types of Variables
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An independent variable is the variable
manipulated by the researcher to cause an effect on
the dependent variable.
The dependent variable is the variable expected to
be affected by the manipulation of an independent
variable.
Moderating variables are variables that are
believed to have a significant contributory or
contingent effect on the originally stated IV-DV
relationship.
Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as
a moderating variable depends on the hypothesis.
Example: The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will
lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among
Terms used in Research Variables Types of Variables
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Extraneous variables are variables that could affect
a given relationship.
Intervening Variables (IVV) are factors that affect
the observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or
manipulated. It is a conceptual mechanism through
which the IV and MV might affect the DV.
Terms used in Research Variables Types of Variables
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Extraneous Variables (EV)
With new customers (EV-control), a switch to
commission from a salary compensation system (IV)
will lead to increased sales productivity (DV) per
worker, especially among younger workers (MV).
Intervening Variables (IVV)
A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings
activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered
(MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV-control).
The results come from enhancing the motivation to
save (IVV).
Terms used in Research Propositions/Hypotheses
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A proposition: a statement about observable
phenomena that may be judged as true or false.
A hypothesis: a proposition formulated for empirical
testing.
A case: is the entity or thing the hypothesis talks
about. When the hypothesis is based on more than
one case, it would be a generalization.
Terms used in Research Propositions/Hypotheses
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Example: Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-
than-average achievement motivation (variable).
Example: Brand managers in Company Z
(Generalized cases) have a higher-than-average
achievement motivation (variable).
Terms used in Research Hypothesis Formats
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A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the
existence, size, form, or distribution of a variable.
Researchers often use a research question rather than
a descriptive hypothesis.
Example:
Descriptive Hypothesis
In Riyadh, our dates market share stands at 33%.
Research Question
What is the market share for our dates in Riyadh?
Terms used in Research Hypothesis Formats
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Descriptive hypothesis versus research question.
Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive
hypothesis has three advantages over the research
question.
1. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to
crystallize their thinking about the likely
relationships.
2. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to
think about the implications of a supported or
rejected finding.
3. Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing
statistical significance.
Terms used in Research Hypothesis Formats
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A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship
between two variables with respect to some case. Relational
hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal).
A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that
variables occur together in some specified manner without
implying that one causes the other.
A causal (explanatory) hypothesis is a statement that
describes a relationship between two variables in which one
variable leads to a specified effect on the other variable.
Terms used in Research Hypothesis Formats
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Example:
Correlational
Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our
product than women who are older than 35.
Causal
An increase in family income leads to an increase in
the percentage of income saved.
Terms used in Research Hypothesis Role of
Hypothesis
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Guide the direction of the study.
Identify relevant facts.
Suggest most appropriate research design.
Provide
framework
conclusions.
for
organizing
resulting
Terms used in Research Hypothesis A Strong
Hypothesis
20
A strong hypothesis has the following characteristics:
1.
Adequate
2.
Testable
3.
Better than rivals
Terms used in Research Theory
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A
theory is a set of systematically interrelated
concepts, definitions, and propositions that are
advanced to explain or predict phenomena.
To the degree that our theories are sound and fit the
situation, we are successful in our explanations and
predictions.
Theories versus hypotheses?
Theories tend to be complex, abstract, and involve
multiple variables.
Hypotheses tend to be simple, limited-variable
statements involving concrete instances.
Terms used in Research Reasoning
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(Source: Cooper & Schindler, 2013, Exhibit 3-7,
Terms used in Research Reasoning
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Inductive and deductive reasoning:
A model may originate from empirical observations
about market behavior based on researched facts
and relationships among variables.
Inductive reasoning allows the modeler to draw
conclusions from the facts or evidence in planning
the dynamics of the model.
Terms used in Research Model
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A model is a representation of a system constructed
to study some aspect of that system or the system as
a whole.
Models versus Theories
A model’s role is to represent or describe.
A theory’s role is to explain.
Terms used in Research Model Types of Models
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Models may be descriptive, predictive, or normative:
1.
2.
3.
Descriptive models used for complex systems as they
allow for the visualization of numerous variables and
relationships.
Predictive models forecast future events and facilitate
business planning.
Normative models are used for control, because they
indicate necessary actions.
Models allow researchers to specify hypotheses that
characterize present or future conditions.
Example: Study the effect of advertising on
consumer awareness or intention to purchase.
Scientific Method
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Good research has the following characteristics:
Direct observation
Clearly defined variables
Clearly defined methods
Empirically testable
Elimination of alternatives
Statistical justification
Self-correcting process
Scientific Method
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Good research is based on sound reasoning because
reasoning is essential for producing scientific results.
Empirical testing denotes observations and
propositions based on sensory experiences and/or
derived from such experience by methods of inductive
logic, including mathematics and statistics.
Researchers using empirical testing attempt to
describe, explain, and make predictions by relying on
information gained through observation.
Scientific method is described as a puzzle-solving
activity.
Scientific Method Role of Researchers
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Encounter problems
State problems
Propose hypotheses
Deduce outcomes
Formulate rival hypotheses
Devise and conduct empirical tests
Draw conclusions
Scientific Method Curiosity
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Important discoveries in research to a common trait of
entrepreneurs: curiosity.
Where the world would be without curiosity?
Curiosity is “what makes us tick.”
Scientific Method Sound Reasoning
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Types of Discourse
Exposition
Deduction
Argument
Induction
Scientific Method Sound Reasoning
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Exposition consists of statements that describe
without attempting to explain.
Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend,
challenge, and explore meaning.
Types of argument:
Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the
conclusion must necessarily follow from the
premises given.
Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a
conclusion from one or more particular facts or
pieces of evidence.
Scientific Method Sound Reasoning Deductive
Reasoning
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Example:
Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult
and expensive.
This survey involves substantial inner-city household
interviewing.
The interviewing in this survey will be especially
difficult and expensive.
Scientific Method Sound Reasoning Inductive
Reasoning
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Example:
Why did not sales increase during our promotional
event?
Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill
customer requests during the promotional period.
A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving
in time for promotion to be effective.
A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10
days during the promotion.
Scientific Method Sound Reasoning Deduction and
Induction
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(Source: Cooper & Schindler, 2013, Exhibit 3-8,
Research Planning Key Terms
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Argument
Case
Concept
Conceptual scheme
Construct
Deduction
Empiricism
Exposition
Hypothesis
Correlational
Descriptive
Explanatory
Relational
Hypothetical
construct
Induction
Model
Operational
definition
Proposition
Sound reasoning
Theory
Variable
Control
Dependent (DV)
Extraneous (EV)
Independent (IV)
Intervening (IVV)
Moderating (MV)
References
36
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2013).
Thinking like a researcher. In Business
research methods (pp. 48-73). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
